[pic of L19 board]

Number of legal Go positions

The 361 points on a 19x19 Go board can be colored empty, black, or white. Only some of the 3^361 possible positions are legal, namely those where every group of connected stones of the same color has an empty point adjacent to it. In the position above, black stones at E18 and N9 lack such ``liberties'', making the position illegal. Due to its capture rule, the positions that can arise in a game of Go are exactly the legal positions. On Jan 20, 2016, the number of legal positions on a standard size Go board was determined to be

L19 = 208168199381979984699478633344862770286522453884530548425639456820927419612738015378525648451698519643907259916015628128546089888314427129715319317557736620397247064840935

or in more compact form 

2081681993819799846
9947863334486277028
6522453884530548425
6394568209274196127
3801537852564845169
8519643907259916015
6281285460898883144
2712971531931755773
6620397247064840935
weighing in at 9*19=171 digits. We can write this more naturally in base 3 as the 19*19 ternary digits 
0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 1 1 1 0 1
2 1 1 2 1 2 0 0 2 1 2 1 0 0 0 2 2 0 2
2 1 0 0 2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2
0 0 2 2 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 1 2 1 0 2 0 1 0
1 0 2 0 2 0 1 2 0 1 1 2 2 1 0 0 1 2 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 2
0 0 2 1 2 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 2 0 0
0 0 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 2
2 1 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 1 0 0 2 1 1 1 2 1
2 0 0 1 0 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 0 2 0 1 2 0
2 1 1 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 2 2 1 2 2 2 0 1 1
2 2 1 2 0 1 1 1 0 2 0 1 2 0 2 2 2 0 2
2 0 1 0 1 2 1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 2 0 0 2 1
2 0 0 0 1 2 2 1 1 2 0 2 2 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 2 2 0 0 1 2 2 0 2 0 2 0 1 2 2 1 0
2 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 0 2 2 0
2 2 1 1 2 0 1 0 2 0 1 2 0 2 1 2 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 0 2 1 0 1 0 2 1 1 2 0
2 2 0 2 1 0 2 2 0 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
which bears a striking resemblance to the image above.

It should come as no surprise that L19, viewed as a position, is itself illegal. The initial ternary digits show that the probability of a random position being legal is about 0.0000222 in ternary, close to 3^-4, or 1 in 81. This 1.2% chance was already computed by random sampling back in 1992. The approximation

L19 ~ 2.081681994 * 10^170

has been known since 2006. So what took us 10 years to nail it down to the last digit?

A Computational Challenge

Consider the problem of factoring. How do we find the prime factors of L19? Repeated trial division, the dumbest possible approach, takes time exponential in the number of digits, so it's utterly infeasible. Instead one should use an advanced algorithm, like the General Number Field Sieve, or the Elliptic Curve Method (ECM). These still take exponential time, but not in the number of digits itself, but rather (roughly) in the cube root or square root thereof, thereby vastly extending the range of inputs on which they're feasible in practice.

Using an ECM implementation courtesy of Dario Alejandro Alpern, I was able to factorize L19 in mere hours on my laptop, yielding 8 prime factors: 

5 *
401 *
4821637 *
964261621 *
2824211368611548437 *
2198466965002376001759613307922757 *
65948646836807567941440434317404197 *
54536540603346595211722061421378072820459376985314707345317470047
of 1,3,7,9,19,34,35, and 65 digits respectively. The challenge of constructing (rather than deconstructing) L19 is surprisingly similar. Individually testing 3^361 positions for legality is as insane as doing trial divisions. Detecting illegalities early during position generation, as this small program for legal probability approximation does, offers only the slightest improvement. Just as with factoring, we need an advanced algorithm that is exponential not in the number of points, but rather in the square root thereof, the board dimension.

Such an algorithm was developed in the early 2000s, and is described in detail in our paper Combinatorics of Go. It essentially reduces computing L19 to taking the 361st power of a very sparse matrix of 363 billion rows and columns. The computational power required for this only became available to me last year.

363 billion what?

The matrix rows and columns represent so called border states, which describe all pertinent information about a cross section of the board, such as the presence of stones still needing liberties and how they are connected. Matrix powers represent counts of the number of paths from one border state to another. Each legal position uniquely corresponds to a path from the edge border state to one without libertyless stones, as illustrated for this 3x3 position:

Chinese jobs

Clever use of the Chinese Remainder Theorem allows for splitting the computation into 9 independent parts, each computing L19 modulo 2^64 minus some small number, contributing 64 bits of the 566 bit result. Starting from March 6 2015, running on big servers at suffering many hiccups and a few catastrophes, after generating an estimated 30 petabyes of disk IO, the last of these jobs finished on December 26, 2015. It then took a few weeks to get the needed log files into my hands. A huge thanks to all these people who made the computation possible!

Verifiability

The software used for these computations is available at my github repository. Running "make" should compute L(3,3) in about a second. For running an L19 job, a beefy server with 15TB of fast scratch diskspace, 8 to 16 cores, and 192GB of RAM, is recommended. Expect a few months of running time. Please use a modulus index outside the set {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,11,19} that we used. The computation has many built-in checks to guard against memory and disk corruption. Values L(m,n) where n<m, are checked for matching L(n,m) (computed in a very different way), while all values L(m,n) have to closely match the approximation formula

L(m,n) ~ 0.8506399258457 * 0.965535059338374^{m+n} * 2.9757341920433572493^{m*n}

derived from earlier results. Finally, application of the Chinese Remainder Theorem provide an important safeguard in that a tiny change in any of the inputs results in a huge change of output.

A big number game

Large numbers have a way of popping up in the game of Go. Few people believe that a tiny 2x2 Go board allows for more than a few hundred games. Yet 2x2 games number not in the hundreds, nor in the thousands, nor even in the millions. They number in the hundreds of billions! 386356909593 to be precise. Things only get crazier as you go up in boardsize. A lower bound of 10^{10^48} on the number of 19x19 games, as proved in our paper, was recently improved to a googolplex.

Server benchmark, anyone?

Go counting could make a decent server benchmark:

Legal counts for all boardsizes

This is sequence A094777 in the fabulous On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.

Click on the left links to find tables for m by n boards.

n number of legal n*n positions
1 1
2 57
3 12675
4 24318165
5 414295148741
6 62567386502084877
7 83677847847984287628595
8 990966953618170260281935463385
9 103919148791293834318983090438798793469
10 96498428501909654589630887978835098088148177857
11 793474866816582266820936671790189132321673383112185151899
12 57774258489513238998237970307483999327287210756991189655942651331169
13 37249792307686396442294904767024517674249157948208717533254799550970595875237705
14 212667732900366224249789357650440598098805861083269127196623872213228196352455447575029701325
15 10751464308361383118768413754866123809733788820327844402764601662870883601711298309339239868998337801509491
16 4813066963822755416429056022484299646486874100967249263944719599975607459850502222039591149331431805524655467453067042377
17 19079388919628199204605726181850465220151058338147922243967269231944059187214767997105992341735209230667288462179090073659712583262087437
18 669723114288829212892740188841706543509937780640178732810318337696945624428547218105214326012774371397184848890970111836283470468812827907149926502347633
19 208168199381979984699478633344862770286522453884530548425639456820927419612738015378525648451698519643907259916015628128546089888314427129715319317557736620397247064840935

The results for n=14,15,16 and 17 were obtained in a joint effort between Michal Koucký and John Tromp.

Many thanks to Gunnar Farnebäck and Michal Koucký for their contributions. Gunnar wrote a legal counting program in pike, while Michal suggested the use of Chinese Remaindering and implemented a file based program.

john.tromp@gmail.com
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